.............following

xviii            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

Pronunciation Guide

a = hat

ah = top, father

ai or ay = haze, ways, daisy

ee = peace, fleece, any

eh = help, said, head, says

g = good  (compare j)

hw = what

ie or i[consonant]e or igh or y = hide, spy i = lip

j = just, adjust, gym (compare g)

ks = tax, tacks

oh = hope, roam

oo = zoom, plume

s = say, peace (compare z)

ts = dance, pants

xix

ü = good, could

uh = hush, done

z = things, zone (compare s)

zh= occasion, leisure, azure, unusual

xx            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

Timeline

c. 2,000,000-c.  10,000 B.C.:   Paleolithic Age.

c. 10,000 B.C.:   Last ice age  ends.

c. 10,000-c. 4000 B.C.:   Neolithic Age.

c. 3500  B.C.:   Beginnings of Sumerian civilization.

c. 3100  B.C.:    Pharaoh  Menes unites  the kingdoms of  Upper and Lower Egypt.

c. 3000 B.C.:   Babylon established.

c. 2950 B.C.:   First examples of hieroglyphs in Egypt.

c. 2920 B.C.:   First Dynasty begins in Egypt.

c. 2800  B.C.:    Mycenaeans leave the Black  Sea  area, moving toward Greece.

c. 2650 B.C.:   Beginning of Old Kingdom in Egypt.

c. 2650 B.C.:   Step  Pyramid of Saqqara, designed by Imhotep, built under reign of pharaoh  Zoser.

c. 2550 B.C.:   Great Pyramid of Cheops built in Egypt.

c. 2500 B.C.:   Indus Valley civilization begins in India.

xxi

c. 2300 B.C.:   Early Dynastic Period ends in Sumer;  Sargon of Akkad,  first great Mesopotamian ruler,  establishes Akkadian Empire.

c. 2200   B.C.:    Hsia, semi-legendary  first dynasty of  China, begins.

2150 B.C.:   End of Old  Kingdom in Egypt; beginning of First

Intermediate Period.

c. 2150 B.C.:   Akkadian Empire ends with Gutian invasion of

Mesopotamia; rise of Ur.

c. 2000 B.C.:   Origins  of Gilgamesh Epic in Sumer.

c. 2000 B.C.:   Phoenician civilization established.

c. 2000 B.C.:   Beginnings of Mayan civilization in Mesoamerica. c. 2000 B.C.:   Establishment of Kushite civilization in Africa. c. 2000 B.C.:   Beginnings of Minoan civilization  in Crete.

1986 B.C.:   Pharaoh  Mentuhotep II unites all of Egypt; end of First Intermediate  Period and   beginning  of Middle Kingdom.

c. 1900 B.C.:   Indus Valley civilization begins to decline.

1813 B.C.:   Shamshi-Adad, first important Assyrian ruler, takes throne.

1792 B.C.:    End of Old   Babylonia  in  Mesopotamia;  Ham- murabi, who later establishes first legal code in history, takes throne.

1766 B.C.:   Shang Dynasty, first historic line of Chinese kings, begins.

c. 1760  B.C.:    Hammurabi of Babylonia  takes control   of

Assyria.

1759 B.C.:   Middle Kingdom ends in Egypt; beginning of Sec- ond  Intermediate Period.

c. 1750 B.C.:   Beginning of Hittite civilization, establishment of capital at Hattush in Asia Minor.

c. 1700 B.C.:   Crete  experiences earthquake; later the Minoans rebuild their palaces at Knossos  and other sites.

c. 1700-1500 B.C.:    Phoenicians  develop the world’s  first alphabet.

xxii            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

c. 1670 B.C.:   Hyksos invade Egypt.

c. 1650 B.C.:   Beginnings of Mycenaean civilization in Greece.

1539 B.C.:   Second  Intermediate Period ends in Egypt; begin- ning of New Kingdom.

c. 1500 B.C.:    Indo-Europeans  invade India;  beginning  of

Vedic Age.

c. 1500 B.C.:   Thebes  founded on Greek  mainland.

c. 1500-c.  1300   B.C.:    Kingdom  of Mitanni  flourishes in

Mesopotamia.

1473 B.C.:   Pharaoh  Hatshepsut assumes sole power in Egypt;

becomes  first significant female ruler in history.

c. 1450  B.C.:   Minoan civilization  in Crete  comes to an end, probably as a result of volcanic eruption on Thera.

1363 B.C.:    Ashur-uballit, who establishes the first  Assyrian empire, begins reign.

c. 1347: Pharaoh  Amenhotep IV changes his name to Akhen- aton and introduces  sweeping religious reforms.

1323 B.C.:   Death of Tutankhamen in Egypt; power struggle fol- lows, along with effort to erase memory of Akhenaton.

c. 1300  B.C.:   City of San Lorenzo established in Mesoamerica.

1200s B.C.:   Moses dies.

1279 B.C.:   Beginning of Pharaoh  Ramses II’s reign in Egypt.

1285 B.C.:   Battle of Kadesh between Egyptians and Hittites.

c. 1200 B.C.:   Sea Peoples bring an end to Hittite civilization in

Asia Minor.

c. 1200 B.C.:   Aramaeans, after briefly controlling  Babylonia, conquer Syria.

c. 1200  B.C.:    Olmec  civilization established in what  is now

Mexico.

c. 1200 B.C.:   Bantu peoples migrate southward from what  is now Nigeria.

c. 1200 B.C.:   Trojan War.

c. 1200 B.C.:   Etruscans settle on Italian peninsula.

c. 1200-900   B.C.:     Carving  of giant   heads  by  Olmec  in

Mesoamerica.

Timeline            xxiii

c. 1140  B.C.:    Macedonians move southward, displacing  the

Dorians from northern Greece.

1125 B.C.:   King  Nebuchadnezzar  I begins reign in Babylon.

c. 1100 B.C.:   Dorians bring an end to Mycenaean civilization; beginning of Dark Ages  in Greece, which last for four centuries.

1070 B.C.:   End of New Kingdom in Egypt; Third Intermediate

Period Begins.

1027 B.C.:    Revolt led by Prince Wu  Wang  brings an end to Shang  Dynasty,  and   the  establishment of Chou Dynasty, in China.

c. 1000 B.C.:   Saul killed; David becomes  ruler of Israel.

c. 1000  B.C.:    End of Vedic  Age,  beginning of Epic  Age,  in

India.

c. 1000   B.C.:    Beginnings  of Chavín civilization  in  South

America.

c. 1000  B.C.:    Celts  begin to spread from Gaul  throughout

Europe.

900s  B.C.:   Phoenicians  begin establishing trade routes  and overseas colonies.

c. 960 B.C.:   David dies; Solomon becomes  ruler of Israel.

934 B.C.:   Beginning of Assyrian conquests which will lead to establishment of Neo-Assyrian Empire.

922 B.C.:   End of Solomon’s reign, and  of unified kingdom of

Israel.

800s B.C.:   Dorians establish Sparta.

883 B.C.:    Ashurnasirpal  II assumes throne in Assyria, estab- lishes Neo-Assyrian Empire.

879 B.C.:   Beginning of King  Ben-Hadad II’s reign in Syria.

c. 850 B.C.:   Greeks  start trading with other peoples; beginning of the end of the Dark Ages.

c. 850-750 B.C.:   Rise of city-states in Greece.

c. 800 B.C.:   Carthage established by Phoenicians.

c. 800 B.C.:   Poets Homer and Hesiod flourish in Greece.

xxiv            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

776 B.C.:   First Olympic Games held.

771 B.C.:    Invasion by nomads from the north forces  Chou Dynasty of China to move capital eastward; end  of Western Chou period.

753 B.C.:   Traditional date of Rome’s founding; Romulus first of seven legendary kings.

c. 751 B.C.:   Piankhi takes throne in Kush.

722  B.C.:    Spring  and  Autumn    Period, a time of widespread unrest, begins in China.

c. 732  B.C.:   Assyrians gain control of Syria.

c. 725 B.C.:   King  Mita,  probably the source of the Midas leg- end, unites the Phrygians.

721 B.C.:   Sargon II of Assyria conquers Israel and carries off its people, who become  known as the Ten Lost  Tribes of Israel.

715  B.C.:    End of war  with Messenia brings a rise to  Spartan militarism.

712 B.C.:    Kushites  under Shabaka  invade Egypt,  establish Twenty-Fifth  Dynasty; end of  Third  Intermediate Period, and beginning of Late Period.

c. 700   B.C.:    End of Dark   Ages,  beginning of two-century

Archaic Age, in Greece.

c. 700 B.C.:   City-state of Athens,  established centuries before, dominates Attica region in Greece.

600s B.C.:   State  of Magadha develops in eastern India.

600s B.C.:    Important  developments in  Greek  architecture: establishment of Doric  order,  first  structures of stone rather than wood.

695 B.C.:   Cimmerians  invade Phrygia, ending Phrygian civi- lization.

689 B.C.:   Assyrians sack Babylon.

c. 685 B.C.:   Gyges founds Mermnad dynasty in Lydia.

681 B.C.:   Sennacherib dies; Esarhaddon takes Assyrian throne.

672 B.C.:    Assyrians  first drive Kushites  out of Egypt, install

Necho I as pharaoh.

Timeline            xxv

669  B.C.:   Beginning of Ashurbanipal’s reign; last great Assyr- ian king.

667  B.C.:   Assyrian troops under Ashurbanipal complete con- quest of Egypt from Kushites.

Mid-600s B.C.:   Meröe Period begins when Kushites, removed from power in Egypt, move their capital southward.

Mid-600s B.C.:   Establishment of Ionian Greek  trading colony at Naucratis in Egypt.

Mid-600s B.C.:   Age of tyrants  begins in Greece.

c. 650 B.C.:   Scribes in Egypt develop demotic  script.

648  B.C.:   Ashurbanipal of Assyria subdues Babylonian revolt; his  brother Shamash-shum-ukin reportedly  commits suicide.

625 B.C.:   Nabopolassar establishes Chaldean (Neo-Babylonian) Empire.

621 B.C.:   Draco appointed by Athenian oligarchs; creates a set of extremely harsh laws.

616 B.C.:   Power-sharing of Sabines and  Latins in Rome ends with  Etruscan takeover  under  legendary  king  Tar- quinius Priscus.

613 B.C.:   First recorded sighting of Halley’s Comet by Chinese astronomers.

612  B.C.:    Babylonians  and  Medes  destroy Nineveh; end of

Neo-Assyrian Empire.

605 B.C.:   Nabopolassar dies; his son Nebuchadnezzar  II, the greatest Babylonian ruler, takes throne.

c. 600 B.C.:    Pharaoh   Necho II of Egypt sends  a  group  of Carthaginian mariners on voyage around African con- tinent.

c. 600 B.C.:   Nebuchadnezzar builds Hanging Gardens in Baby- lon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Late 600s, early 500s B.C.:   Romans wage series of wars against

Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans.

500s B.C.:   Careers of Lao-tzu and Confucius, Chinese philoso- phers.

500s B.C.:   High point of Etruscan civilization in Italy.

xxvi            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

594 B.C.:   Solon appointed archon of Athens.

586   B.C.:    Nebuchadnezzar   II destroys Israelites’  capital  at Jerusalem;  beginning of Babylonian  Captivity  for Israelites.

585 B.C.:   Thales, first Western philosopher, comes to fame in

Greece for correctly predicting a solar eclipse on May 28.

c. 560 B.C.:   Beginning of Croesus’s reign in Lydia.

Mid-500s: Israelite  prophet  Daniel,   a  captive  in  Babylon, flourishes.

559 B.C.:   Cyrus the Great of Persia takes the throne.

550 B.C.:   Cyrus the Great of Persia defeats the Medes, estab- lishes Persian Empire.

c. 550 B.C.:   King  Croesus of Lydia conquers Greek city-states of Ionia.

c. 550 B.C.:   Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven

Wonders of the Ancient World, is built.

546 B.C.:   Persian armies under Cyrus the Great depose King

Croesus and take over Lydia.

546 B.C.:   Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers Ionian city-states of Greece.

538 B.C.:   Persians conquer Babylonia; end of Chaldean (Neo- Babylonian)  Empire, and   of  Israelites’  Babylonian Captivity.

529 B.C.:   Cyrus the Great of Persia dies, succeeded by his son, Cambyses II.

c. 528 B.C.:    In India, Gautama  Siddartha  experiences  his enlightenment; becomes  known as the Buddha.

527 B.C.:    Peisistratus, tyrant  of Athens,  dies; he is  replaced by  his  sons, Hippias and   Hipparchus,  who  prove unpopular.

522 B.C.:    Returning to Persia to deal with rebellious  forces, Cambyses II dies, and is succeeded by Darius the Great.

521 B.C.:   Darius the Great of Persia conquers Punjab region of western India.

510 B.C.:   Four years after the assassination of his brother Hip- parchus, Athenians remove Hippias from power.

Timeline            xxvii

509 B.C.:   Traditional date of Roman overthrow of Etruscan rule.

507 B.C.:   Founding of Roman Republic.

502 B.C.:    Athenians  adopt  a  new constitution   based  on reforms of Cleisthenes, ending the age  of tyrants; birth of democracy.

c. 500 B.C.:   End of Epic Age in India.

c. 500 B.C.:   Kingdom of Aksum  established in Africa.

c. 500 B.C.:   End of Archaic Age, beginning of Classical Age, in

Greece.

c. 500  B.C.:    Celts  (Gauls)  enter northern Italy,  while other

Celtic tribes settle in Britain.

499 B.C.:   Persian Wars in Greece  begin with revolt of Ionian city-states against  Persians.

490 B.C.:   Persian troops under Darius  the Great burn Ionian

Greek  city-state of Eretria.

490 B.C.:   Battle of Marathon: Greeks  defeat Persians.

486  B.C.:   Darius the Great of Persia dies and  is succeeded by his son Xerxes, the last powerful emperor of Persia.

481  B.C.:   End of Spring and Autumn  Period of Chou Dynasty in China.

480  B.C.:    King    Xerxes of Persia  launches  massive  attack against  Greece.

480 B.C.:   Battle of Thermopylae in Greece; Persians victorious despite heroic Spartan defense.

480 B.C.:   Xerxes burns Athens.

480 B.C.:    Battle of Salamis: Athenian-led Greek  naval  force defeats Persians under Xerxes.

479 B.C.:   Battle of Plataea: Spartan-led force overwhelms Per- sians under Mardonius.

479 B.C.:   Battle of Mycale: naval victory by Greeks  expels Per- sians from mainland Greece for good.

479 B.C.:   Golden Age of Greece begins.

478 B.C.:   Delian League founded in Greece, with Athens as its leading city-state.

xxviii            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

474  B.C.:   Carthaginians end Etruscan dreams of empire with defeat  at  Cumae;  Etruscan  civilization begins   to decline.

468 B.C.:   Delian League of Greece defeats Persian fleet off Ion- ian coast.

462 B.C.:   Pericles  and  Ephialtes institute a series of democra- tic reforms in Athens.

460 B.C.:   Pericles  becomes  sole archon of Athens,  beginning the Age of Pericles.

450s  B.C.:    Athenian  Empire subdues  various   Greek  city- states,  wages wars   throughout  Mediterranean  and  Aegean seas.

459   B.C.:    Spartans   and   Athenians  clash over control   of Megara; first of conflicts leading to Peloponnesian War in 431 B.C.

453 B.C.:   Warring States Period begins in China, only ending when Ch’in   Dynasty replaces the  Chou  dynasty  in

221 B.C.

453 B.C.:   Pericles  of Athens becomes  first leader to establish pay for jurors.

451 B.C.:    The “Twelve  Tables,”  the first Roman legal  code, established.

449  B.C.:   Persian Wars officially come to an end.

c. 440 B.C.:   Parthenon built in Athens.

c. 440 B.C.:   Phidias  sculpts Statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

431 B.C.:    Peloponnesian War  between Athens  and   Sparta begins in Greece.

430 B.C.:   Herodotus  begins publishing The History.

429 B.C.:   Plague breaks out in war-torn Athens.

425 B.C.:   Athens defeats Sparta in battle, bringing temporary end to Peloponnesian War.

420 B.C.:   Because it broke Olympic truce by attacking Athens, Sparta keeps it athletes out of the Olympic Games.

412   B.C.:    Ionian  revolt effectively  ends power of Delian

League.

Timeline            xxix

404  B.C.:   Athens surrenders to Sparta, ending Peloponnesian

War.

404 B.C.:   Golden Age of Classical Greece comes to an end.

c. 400 B.C.:   Decline of Chavín civilization in South America.

300s B.C.:   Ch’in state emerges in western China.

300s-200s B.C.:   Romans conquer most Etruscan cities.

396 B.C.:    Rome breaks a century-long  peace  treaty by  con- quering Etruscan city of Veii.

395 B.C.:   Athens,  Corinth, and  Thebes  revolt  against Sparta,  beginning Corinthian War.

390 B.C.:   Celts (Gauls) invade Rome.

390  B.C.:   Beginnings of Roman military  buildup  after expul- sion of Gauls.

386 B.C.:   Spartans  put down revolt of Athens and  other city- states, ending Corinthian War.

Mid-380s B.C.:   Plato establishes Academy in Athens.

371 B.C.:   Theban commander Epaminondas defeats Spartans  at  Leuctra,   bringing  an  end to  Spartan  power  over Greece.

Mid-300s B.C.:   Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven

Wonders of the Ancient World, is built.

359 B.C.:    Philip II takes throne in Macedon, and  five  years later begins conquest of Balkan peninsula.

346 B.C.:   Philip II of Macedon brings an end to war between Greek  leagues over control of Delphi,  calls for Hellenic unity.

339 B.C.:   Philip II of Macedon completes conquest of Balkan peninsula.

338 B.C.:   Macedonian forces under Philip II defeat Greek city- states at Charonea; Macedonia now controls Greece.

336 B.C.:    Philip  II assassinated;  20-year-old  Alexander  III (Alexander the Great) becomes  king of Macedon.

335 B.C.:    Alexander  consolidates  his  power,  dealing  with rebellions in Macedon and Greek  city-states.

335 B.C.:   Aristotle establishes the Lyceum, a school in Athens.

xxx            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

334 B.C.:   Alexander begins his conquests by entering Asia Minor.

334 B.C.:   Beginning now and  for the last twelve years of his life, Aristotle writes most of his works.

333 B.C.:    In April, Alexander’s forces  defeat  Persian  armies under Darius III in Cilicia; Darius flees.

332 B.C.:   Alexander conquers Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine.

332 B.C.:   Alexander invades Egypt.

332 B.C.:    End of Late Period in Egypt; country  will not  be ruled by Egyptians again for some 1,500 years.

331 B.C.:   Alexander establishes city of Alexandria in Egypt.

331 B.C.:   Alexander’s army completes defeat of Persians under Darius III at Gaugamela in Assyria; Darius is later assas- sinated.

331 B.C.:   Alexander conquers Mesopotamia.

330 B.C.:    Persepolis, capital of the Persian Empire, falls to

Alexander the Great.

330 B.C.:    Alexander embarks on four-year conquest of  Iran, Bactria, and the Punjab.

324 B.C.:    Chandragupta  Maurya,  the founder of  Mauryan dynasty, takes the throne of Magadha in eastern India.

323 B.C.:   Beginning of Hellenistic Age, as Greek  culture takes root over the next two centuries in lands  conquered by Alexander.

323 B.C.:    Ptolemy,  one of Alexander’s generals,  establishes dynasty in Egypt that lasts for three centuries.

312 B.C.: Seleucid empire established over Persia, Mesopotamia, and much of the southwestern Asia.

c. 310 B.C.:    Greek  explorer Pytheas sets off on  voyage that takes him to Britain and Scandinavia.

c. 300  B.C.:    Composition  of Mahabharata, an  Indian  epic, begins; writing will continue for the next six centuries.

c. 300  B.C.:    Hinduism  develops from the Vedic  religion brought to India by the Aryans.

290   B.C.:    Romans  defeat Samnites, establish  control   over much of southern Italy.

Timeline            xxxi

287 B.C.:   Plebeians establish power over Roman Senate.

282 B.C.:   Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient  World,  completed; destroyed in  earthquake fifty-four years later.

c. 280 B.C.:   Lighthouse of Alexandria, last of the Seven Won- ders of the Ancient World, built.

279 B.C.:   Celts invade Greece, but are driven out by Antigonus

Gonatas.

275 B.C.:   Romans  defeat Greek  colonists  in southern Italy, establishing control over region.

272 B.C.:   Bindusara, ruler of Mauryan dynasty of India, dies; his son Asoka, the greatest Mauryan ruler, later takes throne.

264 B.C.:   First Punic War between Rome and Carthage begins.

262 B.C.:   Mauryan king Asoka, disgusted by his killings in bat- tle with the Kalinga people, renounces violence.

260 B.C.:   Asoka  begins placement of rock  and  pillar  edicts throughout India.

c. 250 B.C.:    Kushite  civilization  reaches its  height. It  will remain strong for the next four centuries.

247 B.C.:   Beginning of Parthian  dynasty in Iran.

246 B.C.:   End of Shang Dynasty in China.

241 B.C.:   First Punic War ends with Roman defeat of Carthage; Rome controls Sicily, Corsica,  and Sardinia.

230s  B.C.:   Asoka  loses power over Indian court  as rebellious advisors gain influence over his grandson Samprati.

229 B.C.:   Rome establishes military base in Illyria; first step in conquest of Greece.

223  B.C.:   Antiochus  the Great, most powerful Seleucid ruler, begins reign in Syria.

221 B.C.:   Ch’in Shih Huang Ti unites China, establishes Ch’in

Dynasty as first Chinese emperor.

221 B.C.:   Chinese under Ch’in Shih Huang Ti begin building

Great Wall.

221 B.C.:    Unification of China under Ch’in  Shih Huang Ti begins driving the  nomadic  Hsiung-Nu and   Yüeh- Chih tribes westward.

xxxii            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

218 B.C.:    Hannibal of Carthage  launches  Second  Punic War against  Romans, marching from Spain, over Alps, and into Italy.

216 B.C.:   Carthaginians under Hannibal deal Romans a stun- ning defeat at Cumae.

213 B.C.:    Emperor Ch’in Shih Huang Ti calls for burning  of most books in China.

207  B.C.:    End of shortlived Ch’in  Dynasty in China;  power struggle follows.

206 B.C.:   Rebel forces under Hsiang Yü take capital of China.

202   B.C.:    Having defeated Hsiang Yü,  Liu   Pang  (Kao  Tzu)

becomes  emperor, establishes Han Dynasty in China.

202 B.C.:   Roman forces under Scipio defeat Hannibal and the

Carthaginians at Zama.

c. 200   B.C.:    Eratosthenes, librarian  of Alexandria,  makes remarkable accurate measurement of Earth’s size.

198 B.C.:   Seleucids gain control of Palestine.

197 B.C.:   Romans defeat Macedonian forces under Philip V at Cynocephalae; beginning of end of Macedonian rule in Greece.

195 B.C.:   Antiochus the Great, at height of his power, arranges marriage of his daughter Cleopatra  I to Ptolemy IV of Egypt.

195  B.C.:    Hannibal flees Carthage, takes refuge with  Anti- ochus the Great.

191  B.C.:   Roman forces defeat Antiochus  the Great at Ther- mopylae.

190 B.C.:    Romans  under Scipio defeat  Seleucid king  Anti- ochus  the Great at Magnesia, and  add  Asia  Minor  to their territories.

186 B.C.:   Mauryan Empire of India collapses.

170s B.C.:    Parthians   begin half-century  of conquests,  ulti- mately replacing Seleucids as dominant power in Iran and southwest Asia.

165 B.C.:   Nomadic Yüeh-Chih tribes, driven out of China, arrive in Bactria; later, Kushans emerge as dominant tribe.

Timeline            xxxiii

c. 150 B.C.:   Greco-Bactrians under Menander invade India.

149 B.C.:   Romans launch Third Punic War against  Carthage.

146 B.C.:   Romans complete their conquest of Greece.

146 B.C.:   Romans completely destroy Carthage, ending Third

Punic War.

133 B.C.:   Chinese emperor Han Wu-ti launches four decades of war which greatly expand Chinese territory.

130 B.C.:   Wu Ti establishes first civil-service exams in China.

c. 130 B.C.:   Kushans begin a century-long series of conquests, ultimately absorbing Greco-Bactrian kingdom.

128 B.C.:   Emperor WuTi effectively destroys the power of feu- dal lords in China.

121  B.C.:    Roman reformer Gaius Gracchus   commits suicide after some 3,000 of his followers are murdered.

c. 120 B.C.:   Chang Chi’en, on a mission for Emperor  Wu  Ti, makes first Chinese contact with Greek-influenced areas.

108 B.C.:   China, under Wu Ti, conquers Korea.

101 B.C.:   Marius defeats Cimbri, a northern European tribe.

c. 100 B.C.:   End of Olmec civilization in Mesoamerica.

95 B.C.:   Tigranes II, who later makes Armenia a great power, assumes throne.

88 B.C.:   Social War ends; Rome extends citizenship to non- Roman Italians.

88 B.C.:    Sulla, rival  of Roman   consul Marius,  becomes  com- mander of forces against Mithradates the Great of Pon- tus in Asia Minor.

77 B.C.:    Roman  general Pompey sent  to crush  uprising in

Spain.

c. 75 B.C.:   Julius Caesar distinguishes himself with successful attacks against  Cilician pirates, as well as Mithradates of Pontus.

73 B.C.:    Slaves under Spartacus revolt in Capua,  beginning

Gladiatorial War; soon they have an army of 100,000.

71 B.C.:    Gladiatorial  War  ends with defeat of slave army  by

Crassus.

xxxiv            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

69 B.C.:   Rome begins taking over lands  conquered by Tigranes of Armenia; conquest  largely complete  within  three years.

60 B.C.:    Julius Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus form First  Tri- umvirate.

55  B.C.:   Roman troops under Julius Caesar invade, but do  not conquer, Britain; another invasion follows the next year.

51   B.C.:    After  death of her father,  Ptolemy XII,  Cleopatra becomes  coruler of Egypt with her  brother  and  hus- band.

49  B.C.:    Pompey orders Julius Caesar  to return from  Rome;  Caesar crosses the River Rubicon with his army.

48  B.C.:    Cleopatra  forced  out of power in Egypt by a  group loyal to her brother.

48  B.C.:    Julius Caesar’s  forces  defeat  Pompey at Pharsalus  in

Greece; Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is assassinated.

48 B.C.:   Julius Caesar arrives in Egypt, meets and begins affair with Cleopatra.

47  B.C.:    Julius  Caesar  helps Cleopatra  defeat her  brother, Ptolemy XIII.

46 B.C.:   Cleopatra goes to Rome with Julius Caesar.

44 B.C.:    On  March  15, a group of conspirators  assassinates

Julius Caesar in the chambers of the Roman senate.

44 B.C.:   Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus form Second Tri- umvirate.

41 B.C.:   Cleopatra  and  Mark Antony   begin political and  per- sonal alliance.

37 B.C.:    Mark Antony   leaves his wife, Octavian’s sister,  and joins Cleopatra; launches military campaigns in south- west Asia.

37 B.C.:   Herod the Great becomes  vassal  king in Roman-con- trolled Judea.

36 B.C.:   Octavian removes Lepidus from power, begins deal- ing with Mark Antony.

32 B.C.:   Roman senate, at the urging of Octavian, declares war on Cleopatra.

Timeline            xxxv

31 B.C.:   Roman forces destroy Mark Antony   and  Cleopatra’s fleet at  Actium    in  Greece  on  September 2;  Antony commits suicide.

31 B.C.:   Beginning of Octavian’s sole control of Rome, end of a century of unrest.

31 B.C.:   Beginning of Pax Romana, or “Roman Peace,” which prevails throughout Roman world for two centuries.

30 B.C.:   Suicide of Cleopatra VII; Romans establish control of

Egypt.

27   B.C.:    Octavian  declared  Emperor Augustus     Caesar  by

Roman senate; Roman Empire effectively established.

24  B.C.:    Romans  attempt  unsuccessfully to conquer  south- western Arabia.

17 B.C.:   Vergil’s Aeneid published.

c. 6 B.C.:   Jesus Christ born.

*******

9 A.D.:   Wang Mang usurps throne of Han Dynasty in China, establishing Hsin Dynasty.

9 A.D.:   Forces  of Augustus   Caesar defeated by Germans, end- ing Roman expansion to the north.

14 A.D.:   Augustus   Caesar  dies; his stepson Tiberius becomes emperor,  marking   official  establishment of  Roman Empire.

23 A.D.:   Han Dynasty regains control of China;  beginning of the Later Han Period.

c. 30 A.D.:   Jesus Christ dies.

c. 36 A.D.:   Saul has vision on road  to Damascus  which leads him to embrace  Christianity; becomes  most important apostle.

41 A.D.:   Caligula killed by Roman military; Claudius becomes emperor.

43 A.D.:   Rome launches last major conquest, in Britain.

47 A.D.:   Victorious in Britain, Romans demand that all Britons surrender their weapons.

xxxvi            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

49  A.D.:    Council  of Jerusalem,  early meeting of  Christians attended by the apostle Paul, is held.

c. 50 A.D.:   Josephus, Jewish historian whose work is one of the few non-biblical sources regarding Jesus, flourishes.

60 A.D.:   After the Romans attack her family, Boadicea, queen of the Iceni people in Britain, leads revolt.

64 A.D.:   Rebuilding of Temple in Jerusalem, begun by Herod the Great in 20 B.C., completed.

64 A.D.:   Fire sweeps Rome;  Nero accused of starting  it.

64 A.D.:   Nero blames Christians for fire in Rome, beginning first major wave of persecutions.

65  A.D.:   After suicide  of his advisor, the philosopher Seneca, Nero becomes  increasingly uncontrollable.

69  A.D.:    Vespasian  becomes   Roman  emperor,  begins  estab- lishing order throughout empire.

70   A.D.:    Future Roman emperor Titus,  son  of  Vespasian, destroys Jerusalem and its temple.

c. 78 A.D.:   Kaniska,  greatest Kushan ruler, takes throne; later extends Buddhism to China.

79 A.D.:   Mount  Vesuvius erupts, destroying the city of Pom- peii in Italy.

81 A.D.:   Death of Titus; his brother, the tyrannical Domitian, becomes  Roman emperor.

c. 90 A.D.:   John writes Revelation, last book in the Bible.

98 A.D.:   Roman historian Tacitus publishes Germania, one of  the few contemporary  accounts of German tribes and Britons.

100 A.D.:   The Sakas, a Scythian tribe, take over Kushan lands in what is now Afghanistan.

c. 100 A.D.:   Taoism, based on the ideas of Lao-tzu six centuries before, becomes  a formal religion in China.

c. 100  A.D.:    Establishment of Teotihuacán,  greatest  city  of ancient America.

c. 100 A.D.:   Old Silk Road, trade route between East and West, established.

Timeline            xxxvii

135 A.D.:     Roman emperor Hadrian  banishes  Jews   from

Jerusalem.

c. 150  A.D.:    Nomadic Hsien-Pei tribe  of China briefly  con- quers a large empire.

161 A.D.:   Tiber River floods, causing famine in Rome.

161 A.D.:   Greek  physician Galen goes to Rome;  later becomes physician to Marcus Aurelius and other emperors.

165 A.D.:    Romans  destroy Parthian   capital at  Ctesiphon, bringing an end to Parthian  control over Persia.

175 A.D.:   Roman general Avidius Cassius revolts against  Mar- cus Aurelius  in Syria, but is assassinated by one of his soldiers.

180 A.D.:    Marcus  Aurelius,   last  of the four “good”  Roman emperors, dies; he is replaced by his wild  son Com- modus.

184  A.D.:   Yellow Turbans lead revolt  against  Han Dynasty emperor of China;  revolt is crushed  five years later by Ts’ao Ts’ao.

192 A.D.:   Roman emperor Commodus assassinated; Septimus Severus  (r. 192-211), tries unsuccessfully  to  restore order.

200s   A.D.:    Diogenes Laertius writes Lives of  the  Eminent Philosophers, primary  information  source  on  Greek  philosophers.

c. 200  A.D.:   Zapotec people establish Monte Albán, first true city in Mesoamerica.

c. 200  A.D.:   Anasazi tribe  appears in what  is now the south- western United States.

220 A.D.:   Later Han Dynasty of China ends.

221 A.D.:   Three  Kingdoms period in China begins.

c. 226 A.D.:   Sassanian  dynasty begins in Persia.

235 A.D.:   Rome enters period of unrest in which 20 emperors  hold the throne in just 49 years.

mid-200s  A.D.:    Shapur  I, Sassanian   ruler,  takes  Syria  from

Romans.

xxxviii            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

253 A.D.:   Roman recovery begins with the emperor Gallienus, who later brings persecution of Christians to  tempo- rary end.

265 A.D.:   Three  Kingdoms period in China ends.

270 A.D.:   Aurelian begins reign as Roman emperor.

270 A.D.:   Queen  Zenobia of Palmyra  launches revolt  against

Roman Empire, conquers most of Syria and Egypt.

284 A.D.:    Aurelian  assassinated, Roman  army  chooses Dio- cletian  as  emperor; Diocletian  ends period of  unrest with series of reforms.

300s A.D.:   Buddhism enters China.

300s A.D.:   Books  of the Bible compiled; some—the so-called Apocryphal  Books—are  rejected  by  early  Christian bishops.

301 A.D.:    Armenia  becomes   first nation  to officially  adopt

Christianity.

302 A.D.:   Diocletian resumes persecution of Christians.

307  A.D.:   Constantine, last powerful Roman emperor, begins reign.

313 A.D.:   Constantine declares an end to persecution of Chris- tians in Roman Empire.

317 A.D.:   Eastern Chin  Dynasty established in China.

c. 320 A.D.:   Candra Gupta establishes Gupta Empire in India.

325 A.D.:   King  Ezana of Aksum  goes to war against  Kush  and destroys Meröe.

325 A.D.:    Council of Nicaea adopts Nicene Creed, Christian statement of faith; declares Arianism a heresy.

330 A.D.:    Constantine  renames Greek  city  of Byzantium; as Constantinople, it becomes  eastern capital of Roman Empire.

c. 335 A.D.:   Candra Gupta dies; his son Samudra Gupta takes throne, and  later conquers most of Indian  subconti- nent.

c. 335 A.D.:    King   Ezana converts to Christianity; nation  of

Aksum  embraces the religion.

Timeline            xxxix

c. 355 A.D.:   Huns appear in eastern Europe.

361 A.D.:    Roman emperor Julian  begins reign;  later  tries to reestablish pagan religion.

376 A.D.:    Samudra Gupta, ruler  of Gupta Empire in  India, dies; Candra  Gupta II, greatest Gupta  ruler,  takes throne.

379 A.D.:   Theodosius becomes  Roman emperor; last to rule a united Roman Empire.

383 A.D.:   At  Fei Shui, an Eastern Chin force prevents nomads from overrunning all of China.

386 A.D.:   Toba nomads invade northern China and  establish

Toba Wei Dynasty.

394 A.D.:    Roman  emperor Theodosius I brings  an  end  to ancient Olympic Games.

c. 400 A.D.:   End of Kushite kingdom in Africa.

401  A.D.:    Visigoth  chieftain Alaric, driven out  of  Eastern

Roman Empire, moves westward.

410 A.D.:   Visigoths under Alaric sack Rome on August  24, has- tening fall of western empire.

420 A.D.:   End of Eastern Chin  Dynasty in China.

434 A.D.:    Huns  arrive in what  is now Austria;  around this time, Attila emerges as their leader.

448  A.D.:   Huns, under Attila, move into western Europe.

c. 450 A.D.:   Hunas (Huns or Hsiung-Nu) invade Gupta Empire in India.

451 A.D.:   Huns under Attila invade Gaul; defeated at Châlons- sur-Marne.

500s A.D.:   African kingdom of Aksum  establishes control over

“incense states” of southern Arabia.

c. 500 A.D.:   Japanese adopt Chinese system of writing; begin- nings of Japanese history.

c. 500 A.D.:   Bantu peoples control most of southern Africa.

c. 540 A.D.:   End of Gupta Empire in India.

554 A.D.:   End of Toba Wei Dynasty in northern China.

xl            Ancient  Civilizations: Almanac

575 A.D.:   Sassanid Persians gain control over Arabian peninsula.

581  A.D.:   Establishment of Sui Dynasty, and  reunification of

China.

600s A.D.:   Rise of Islam and Arab power.

600s A.D.:   Three  kingdoms emerge as Korea establishes inde- pendence from China.

c. 600 A.D.:   Civil-service examinations, pioneered by Emperor Han Wu-ti seven centuries before, formally established in China.

c. 600 A.D.:   African kingdom of Aksum  declines.

618 A.D.:   End of Sui Dynasty, beginning of T’ang Dynasty, in

China.

622 A.D.:    Mohammed and  his followers escape  from Mecca

(the Hegira); beginning of Muslim calendar.

642 A.D.:   Founding of Cairo, Egypt.

672 A.D.:   Muslims conquer Egypt.

c. 750 A.D.:   Decline of Teotihuacán in Mesoamerica.

1300s   A.D.:    Lighthouse of Alexandria destroyed in  earth- quake.

1687 A.D.:   Parthenon damaged by explosion during war.

1776-88  A.D.:   British  historian Edward Gibbon publishes The

History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

1798 A.D.:   French  forces under Napoleon invade Egypt; later

French  scholars develop modern Egyptology.

1799 A.D.:    Rosetta  Stone  discovered by  French   troops  in

Egypt.

1800s  A.D.:    Gilgamesh  Epic of Mesopotamia recovered by scholars.

1800s  A.D.:   Linguists   discover  link between Indo-European languages of India, Iran, and Europe.

1813 A.D.:   French  publication of Description of Egypt, first sig- nificant modern work about Egyptian civilization.

1821 A.D.:   Jean-François Champollion deciphers Rosetta Stone, enabling first translation of Egyptian hieroglyphs.

Timeline            xli

1860 A.D.:    First discovery  of colossal stone heads carved  by

Olmec in Mexico.

1871 A.D.:   Heinrich Schliemann begins excavations at Hissar- lik in Turkey, leading to discovery  of ancient Troy.

1876-78  A.D.:   Heinrich Schliemann  discovers  ruins of Myce- nae  in Greece.

1894  A.D.:    Pierre de  Coubertin establishes modern Olympic

Games; first Games held in Athens two years later.

Late 1800s A.D.:    Archaeologists  discover  first evidence,  out- side of the Bible,  of Hittite civilization in Asia Minor.

1922 A.D.:    British    archaeologist   Howard  Carter  discovers  tomb of Egyptian pharaoh  Tutankhamen.

1947-50s  A.D.:   Dead Sea scrolls discovered in Palestine.

1952 A.D.:   Mycenaean Linear B script    deciphered.

1960s A.D.:   Archaeologists discover evidence of volcanic erup- tion on Greek  island of Thera c. 1500 B.C.